The doctrine that the CONTENT of the conclusion of a deductively valid argument is included in the CONTENT of its premises, taken jointly, is a familiar one. It has important consequences for the question of what value valid arguments possess, since it indicates the poverty of three traditional answers: that arguments may and should be used as instruments of persuasion, that they may and should be used as instruments of justification; and that they may and should be used to advance knowledge. The truth is, however, that in each of these cases the argument has only a managerial role and, if there is any work done, it is the premises that do it. It will be maintained that this point has little force against the critical rationalist answer, which I shall defend, that the principal purpose of deductive reasoning from an assemblage of premises is the exploration of their CONTENT, facilitating their criticism and rejection. That said, the main aim of the present paper is not to promote critical rationalism but to consider some published objections to the doctrine that a statement asserts every statement that is validly deducible from it. The alleged counterexamples to be considered fall roughly into two groups: statements that emerge with time from a rich mathematical or empirical theory, but were originally unformulated and are deducible from the theory only in a non-trivial way (Frederick 2011, 2014; Williamson 2012); and statements, notably disjunctions, that are easily formulated and are deducible from a theory in a trivial way (Schurz & Weingartner 1987; Mura 1990, 2008; Gemes 1994; Yablo 2014). Each of these counterexamples will be evaluated and dismissed.

Background and Aim: Although orthodontists have long recognized that the EXTRACTION (Ext) of premolars often is accompanied by changes in the soft tissue profile, investigations indicate that the soft tissue does not always respond favorably to hard-tissue retraction. This study was designed to evaluate the effects of treatment, with and without premolar Ext, on the lateral facial profiles of borderline patients with particular reference to the curvature of the upper and lower lips.Materials & Methods: Eighty-nine border line patients were included in this study. 41 patients were treated with a non-EXTRACTION (Non-Ext) protocol, 16 patients were treated with EXTRACTIONs of 5.5, 18 patients with 4.4 and 14 patients with 4.5. All pre-and posttreatment lateral cephalograms were traced and analysis by one examiner. To quantify the soft tissue effects of growth and treatment, the depths of the upper and lower lip curves were calculated in two ways relative to the PM reference line and anterior soft tissue reference line.Results: The changes in depth of upper and lower lip curves were statistically significant (P<0.001).The Non-Ext group showed an increase in depth of upper and lower lip curves, whereas the Ext group showed a decrease in depth of upper and lower lip curves. No significant differences were found between the various EXTRACTION sequences (5.5, 4.4, 4.5) for depth of the upper and lower lip curves changes.Conclusions: l) The upper and lower lip changes were significant; more retrusive in the Ext group and more protrusive in the Non-Ext group. 2) There were no significant post treatment differences in the depths of upper and lower lip curves between premolar EXTRACTION sequences.

Background & Aim: EXTRACTION of first premolars and their influence on the third molars' eruption and impaction has been of concern to dental profession. The aim of this study, was to determine the relation between the changes of third molar angulation and the first premolar EXTRACTION in orthodontic treatment.Materials and Methods: This analytical study was carried out on total 90 subjects selected from two orthodontic clinics. Forty five subjects (14 males and 31 females) 14.46±1.64 years old treated with EXTRACTION of four first premolars (EXTRACTION group) and the other 45 subjects (13 males, 32 females) 13.9±1.99 years old treated by nonEXTRACTION were studied. Lateral cephalometric and panoramic films were studied before and after treatment. Eight angles in panoramic, four angles and 4 linear variables on the lateral cephalometric films were measured. Age, gender, amount of crowding in both dental arches and treatment duration were matched in the two groups. Student t and chi square tests were used to analyze the data.Results: The upper eruption space and the lower eruption spaces were more in EXTRACTION group and the difference was significant (P=0.02, P=0.004, P<0.001). The changes of third molar angulation were not significant between the two groups. Eruption rate of the third molars in both arches were more in EXTRACTION group and the difference was significant (P<0.001).Conclusion: EXTRACTION of the first premolars did not influence the changes in the third molar angulation, while it affected the third molar eruption by space creation. It seems that EXTRACTION of the first premolars is not a way for secure eruption of the third molar.

Subcritical water EXTRACTION (SWE) is an alternative technique implemented water as a solvent. The objective of this work was to extract Zingiber zerumbet rhizome using SWE at a temperature range from 100º C to 180º C with duration from 5 to 25 min. The extracts were analysed for total phenolic CONTENT (TPC), total flavonoid CONTENT (TFC) and radical scavenging activity (RSA). Soxhlet EXTRACTION using ethanol was used for a comparison purpose. Results showed the highest TPC and TFC was obtained at 180º C and 25 min EXTRACTION, with the yield of 18. 52 mg GAE/gDW and 2. 34 mg QE/gDW of rhizome for TPC and TFC, respectively. RSA at peak of 83. 9 % inhibition at the condition of 180º C and 10 min EXTRACTION. In comparison to Soxhlet EXTRACTION, the extract after SWE gives the highest amount of TPC and RSA. However, the values for TFC are lower as compared to ethanolic extract. Therefore, SWE process for Zingiber zerumbet extract is favourable for higher TPC and RSA. A direct linear correlation between the RSA with the TPC and TFC of the extracts shows that a strong correlation was observed between TPC and the RSA with the R2 obtained was 0. 910 as compared to moderate correlation (R2=0. 785) perceived in TFC. Thus, it shows higher radical scavenging activity in Zingiber zerumbet was contributed by phenolic CONTENT as compared to its flavonoid CONTENT. In overall, SWE is a potential alternative EXTRACTION process that should be further explored.

This study was carried out to evaluation of solvent type on antioxidant potential and phenol and flavonoid CONTENTs of Postia puberula belonging to the Astraceae family. Ethanolic, methanolic, aqueous and hydroalcoholic extracts were prepared for evaluation of the antioxidant activities and phenol and flavonoids CONTENTs. The antioxidant effects were tested by two methods, 2 and 2 diphenyl 1-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) and beta-carotene-linoleic acid. Gallic acid and quercetin were used as controls for phenolic and flavonoid compounds, respectively. The results showed that the solvent type could be effective on antioxidant activity, phenol and flavonoid CONTENT, so that the hydroalcoholic extract had the highest antioxidant activity in both methods, also, the highest phenol and flavonoid CONTENTs were observed in the hydroalcoholic and ethanolic extracts, respectively.

Introduction: Use of an adhesive with a suitable composite resin is an important factor in tooth-colored restorations and increasing marginal sealing ability. The aim of this study was to evaluate the microleakage of various adhesives with composite resins using fluid filtration and dye EXTRACTION techniques and assessment of the correlation between these two techniques.Materials and Methods: In this in vitro study, class II cavities were prepared on the proximal surfaces of 48 extracted sound human premolar teeth, measuring 1.5±0.5 mm in gingival width, 4 mm in occluso-gingival height and 1.3 of the inter-cuspal distance in width. The samples were divided into four groups (n=12). Group 1; OptiBond Solo Plus adhesive/Herculite XRV composite resin; Group 2: OptiBond Solo Plus adhesive/Master Dent composite resin; Group 3: Prime & Bond NT adhesive/Herculite XRV composite resin; Group 4: Prime & Bond NT adhesive/Master Dent composite resin. Microleakage was assessed primarily by fluid filtration and then by dye EXTRACTION techniques. Data were analyzed with Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests, with Bonferroni correction and Spearman's rho correlation test at 95% confidence interval.Results: The minimum and maximum mean microleakage values were recorded in fluid filtration and dye EXTRACTION techniques groups 1 and 4, respectively. There were significant differences between the experimental groups in microleakage with the two methods of leakage assessment (p value=0.001). Spearman's rho revealed a strongly direct correlation between the two methods (r=0.797, p value=0.000).Conclusion: In both methods of microleakage assessment, use of ethanol-based in comparison to acetone-based adhesive resulted in microleakage reduction. Application of light-cured composite resin contrary to self-cured composite resin with both types of adhesives increased marginal sealing ability.

This study was carried out to determine the potential of rumen microorganisms in samples taken from slaughterhouse to produce fibrolytic enzymes and to compare different methods for EXTRACTION,concentration and conservation of them,According to the results,the average specific activity of cellulase and xylanase were 7,5 and 16,5 U/mg protein respectively,The application of homogenizing and sonication methods to extract rumen CONTENT enzymes showed that the former had better performance in the liberation of enzymes,To determine optimum time length for the maximum release of enzymes from solid phases,various time lengths including one,1,5 and two min were examined,Based on this experiment,one minute appeared the best,To attain a high level of concentration of enzymes obtained from rumen liquor,various procedures were applied,The results indicate that freeze drying and precipitation of enzyme using ammonium sulphate were the best methods,while trichloroacetic acid precipitation turned out to be the most inappropriate method due to improper effect on enzymatic activity,In order to examine the effect of temperature and time length on enzymes activities,some methods including liquid nitrogen,freezing in-70°and freezing in-20°were applied,The comparison of different methods of enzymes conservation indicated that applying liquid nitrogen for long term as well as keeping in the freezer (-70°) for medium term purposes were the best,